The recent upsurge of Bengal tigers is a direct result of heightened conservation efforts and increased forest regeneration within the buffer zones of Chitwan National Park (CNP); in turn, dramatically increasing the chances of human-tiger conflict. I believe the topic of resolving human related conflicts towards the Bengal tiger is the key to its survival. Herein, I will explore the different demographics among Bengal tigers through scholarly research. Additionally, I have found that the increased tiger population has resulted in the absence of wild territory and prey.[2][4] Tigers who lack their natural food source will hunt livestock as an alternative, oftentimes costing the farmer the price of a cow or buffalo. These deaths (human and livestock) only result in reduced support for tiger conservation or even retaliation.[4] In desperation, farmers will poison or physically attack the tigers with guns, or spears.[4]
The CNP, like most other national parks, has supported its animals through extensive eco-tourism. Notably, their efforts have helped preserve the Chitwan forests so that animals within lead a good healthy life,[2] but at the cost of frequent, upclose encounters with humans.[8] The effects of tourism weigh heavily on farmers, who rely on their crops and livestock for a living. Nepal, has now more than ever, become reliant on eco-tourism and resort style tourism for their main source of income.[6][2] To tackle each problem as a whole can not be the solution in solving the human-tiger conflicts. Therefore, with more efforts towards long-term tracking of tigers and a more critical response to immediate attacks will greatly reduce the conflict and provide necessary coexistence within the Nepal community.[2][4][6]
The demographic of tigers who have been labeled as “human-killer” or “livestock-killer” should not be overlooked. Based upon the study on the factors associated with human-killing tigers by Gurung, Bhim, et al., there are significant differences between human-killer and non-human killer tigers; most of which are predominantly due to the changes in their ecosystem and population increase.[2]
First, Bengal tigers need a sustainable source of food, and large areas of forest to establish proper territory to maintain a healthy population. Today, Nepal's tiger habitat has been reduced down to more than 7% of its historical size.[2] Large amounts of habitat fragmentation has resulted in prey depletion, and for the first time ever, humans are competing with tigers for their direct prey source.[2] Decay in wild prey can result in tigers substituting with livestock or occasionally humans (the years from 1979 to 2006, 88 humans were killed by tigers in the CNP and adjoining areas).[2] In recent conservation interventions, community managed forests are becoming home to new tigers who have responded to these newly regenerated forests.[2] As an outcome of the increase in tiger numbers, the chances of human-tiger conflict inside these newly developed areas have risen.[2]
Now, 163–253 tigers are estimated in Nepal, and >100 in Chitwan National Park.[5][3] Both Gurung, Bhim, et al., and Lamichhane, B.r., et al., have highly considered the tigers demographics as of paramount importance to the solution of this problem. Both teams, Gurung, Bhim, et al. in 2008 and Lamichhane, B.r. 2017, have categorized a select sum of tigers into assorted groups in order to determine the differences between each incident.[2][4] In 2008, the tigers were separated into two groups, individual-killers and serial-killers.[4] In 2017, a much more specific method was invented, separating them into four different categories: i) Accidental human-killer - killed, but did not eat one human. ii) Repeated human-killer - killed and ate one to several humans, iii) Serial livestock-killer - involved in >3 livestock killing incidents within a month from the same locality in the buffer zone and iv) Safety threat (no attack or livestock kill but threatened people by entering into a village).[4]
Each incident was reported by a documented wildlife technician and veterinary officer of CNP.[4] The record of the GPS location, age, sex, and individual stripe pattern were taken from a series of camera trap locations.[4] Between the year 2008 - 2014 a collection of camera trap photos were compared and plotted as points on a geospatial data map with polygons resembling individual tiger conflict areas.[4] Each data point on the map was colored differently based on age of tigers and time the photo was taken.[4] The individual striped patterns were used in order to determine the tigers age and sex in most cases.[4] Finalization results had shown a clear increase of problem adult tigers from 2009 to 2013; in further investigation into each problem tiger, physical condition and territorial behavior were the two major factors in determining the reasons why there was conflict in specific tigers.[4] Transient and physically impaired tigers had clearly shown increased aggression towards humans. Only 2% of resident tigers compared to 30% of transient tigers were involved in conflict.[4] Additionally, 5% of healthy tigers were involved in conflict compared to the 63% of those physically impaired.[4] This data constitutes that the probability of being involved in conflict with a resident tiger is 0.003, transient tiger 0.08 healthy tiger 0.0002 and physically impaired is 0.68.[4]
On the other side of the problem, in 2016, Reddy, Chidanand S., and Reuven Yosef conducted a study on the residences’ attitude towards tigers and how they feel about coexisting with them. He stresses the fact that Bengal tigers are an umbrella species for preserving the biodiversity of the forests in Nepal; how 500-600 deaths from wildlife a year are not as frequent compared to those of rail accidents, and road accidents (150,00 annually).[6] His knowledge of Nepal's attitude towards these tigers is so important and worth following in order to understand the source of the conflict.
According to Reddy, Chidanand S., and Reuven Yosef, in order to understand how each encounter influences the lives of the villagers, 10 villages where surveyed, all within the buffer zones of Bor Tiger Reserve (BTR, a similar reserve to Chitwan National Park).[6] Similarly to Chitwan, villagers were limited to livestock grazing as well as gathering firewood.[6] BTR, an area of 61.1 km2 may seem insignificant compared to Chitwans 931.8 km2, making it possible for a majority survey.[2][4][6] The survey consisted of 10 questions: 1) Are you aware of tigers in the immediate vicinity of the village?; 2) Have you ever encountered a tiger in real life? If so, what is the frequency?; 3) Do you know of a family member/fellow villager who has encountered a tiger? If so, to what frequency? ; 4) Are you aware of property loss in a tiger(s) related incident?; 5) Have you suffered personal loss directly or indirectly related to a tiger(s)?; 6) Are you aware of any benefits from the continued existence of the tigers?; 7) Do you consider tigers essential in the evolving modern-day landscapes?; 8) Could you envision a future without tigers?; 8) Does the tiger play any role of importance in the environment?; 10) Do you see any importance in the effort to conserve the tiger and the forest it Inhabits?.[6]
The interviews were done in collaboration with guards who have many years experience with tiger related incidents. The collaborations were made in order to weed out falsified stories and over exaggerations.[6] By having guards, who are seen as locals or friends, the villagers trust them and will not hold back any non-biased, politically incorrect answers.[6] While there are 5,799 permanent residents between all ten of the towns (Adegaon, Bhordgaran, Dhanoli, Garamsur, Gothangaon, Nawargaon, Nawegaon, Pendhri, Salaikala, and Salaipivat[6]) only 311 (5.4%) had agreed to participate in the study.[6] It is also important to note that a majority of women in rural India are unable to voice their opinions due to past customs still prevalent in some areas.[9][6] This had made it difficult to interview most of the women in the area, in turn only 7% agreeing to the study.[6]
After all the 311 residentes’ interviews had concluded, the raw data was converted into seven major categories, with five being positive, pro conservation.[6] Hence, narrowing down the large issues among the population to just two categories. To my surprise, 93% of the villagers agreed that tigers help prevent agricultural damage; reason being that the predators had kept out other animals notorious for eating farmer’s crops. Most farmers considered tigers a boon because their presence kept raiding troops of Hanuman langur monkeys (Semnopithecus dussumieri) and herds of herbivores (e.g., chital deer Axis axis, nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus, wild boar Sus scrofa) away from their plots, subsequently allowing for a better crop.[6] 100% stated that tigers allow the forests to maintain a preserved state due to the strict harvesting laws on grazing and fodder collection.[6] 86% had shown awareness to the tigers environmental presence and some even mentioned that without the forests, it will result in soil denudation and poor rains.[6] More readily, 81% had displayed some sort of religious connection to the tigers; displaying tigers as vehicles for the gods they believe in.[6] “Most villagers are ardent Hindus and believe in the pantheon of gods and goddesses.”[6] Alternatively, only 4% have voiced that their survival was more important than saving “a few animals” in the forests around them.[6] Although, 17% had displayed some form of hatred to the untimely compensation they were receiving for loss of livestock and or property.[6] In some cases “the villagers were happy to be translocated mainly due to declining forest productivity that adversely affected their incomes, and lack of access to education and health facilities.”[6]
Backtracking into why these tigers eat livestock, I believe that knowing there natural diet is vital to understanding them as a species. In 2017, Bhandari, Shivish, et al. conducted research exploring the diet of the Bengal tigers and how much livestock they actually consume. Tigers (being solitary animals) are capable of capturing a large diversity of animals, 75% of which are deer species.[1] When the larger wild prey becomes scarce (due to seasonal migration or human intervention) then increased predatism towards livestock is essential for their survival.[1] Within the CNP, 50 mammal species, >526 bird species, 49 species of reptiles and amphibians, and 120 species of fish reside, leaving a majority of the larger mammals as prey.[1]
The methods used by Bhandari, Shivish, et al. to understand the tigers’ diet lie within their scat; each differentiated by size, morphology, and other signs such as surrounding tracks, pugmarks, and scrapes.[1] Each piece collected was washed and searched for bones, teeth, hair, and claws. Contents that were abundant, such as hair, were randomly selected in a count of 20. Each item was examined under a compound stereoscopic microscope. In order to determine the weight of the species killed, the equation based on the correction factor developed by ackerman et al; Y = 1.98 + 0.035X; where Y is the biomass of prey consumed to produce a single field collectable scat and X the average body weight of the prey species.[1] SCATMAN was used to detect the species the tigers consumed. With the equation set in the program 1000 bootstrap iterations were run, when two species were detected, they were recorded as 0.5.[1]
In final results of 109 wild prey items, 8 were different species recorded in the 85 scats collected.[1] The Chital deer, 44.95% was the most dominant among it prey with sambar, 22.93%.[1] Unanticipated results had also shown that only 6.36% were livestock (4.63% buffalo and 1.64% cow).[1] Wild prey were 94% a part of these tigers relative biomass, thus proving the overall impact on livestock is substantially lower than expected in CPN.[1]
Lastly, tigers, like most other large felines, are susceptible to a variety of infections and diseases. Some of which have been found on physically impaired tigers.[2] In the CNP one of the most prevalent infections, “Maggot wounds” or Myiasis; is when the tiger obtains a wound from any source and the exterior of said wound becomes infected. Larva then begins to grow inside of the wound and eventually feeds on the tissue.[7] These wounds have been known to disrupt the tigers sleeping patterns as well as major amounts of irritation often resulting is failed hunts.[7] If these wounds are not properly treated they can lead to death.[7] In the medical journal by Talukder, Anup, et al., 2017, two tigers who had the infection were chosen to study the removal process. In Case One, the tiger was a two-year old female with wounds located on its back.[7] Case Two was a two year old male with two wounds, one on its right thigh and other on its back.[7] Veterinarians can determine if a tiger has maggot wounds if accelerated rubbing on trees or other objects is observed.[7]
As for the process of removal, each tiger is darted using a blow pipe with a 10 mL anesthetic dart.[7] After the sedadating process is successful, the hairs around the wound are shaved and the maggots removed from the wound pocket using tissue forceps.[7] When finished, the wound pocket is then filled with a gauge dipped in turpentine for 5 minutes to remove any deeply embedded maggots.[7] When finished a small amount of sulfanilamide powder is then sprinkled into the wound to stop any further infections.[7] Within 12 days each of the wounds were completely healed; though, rapid healing was observed and was possibly due to the care in which the tiger was under during the operation.[7] This was surprising to the veterinarians because cattle take a substantial amount of time to recover.[7] If the wild life services continue to care for these infections, there is very little chance of it becoming more involved with human-conflict.
Efforts towards deep-rooted tracking techniques and faster response times to immediate attacks will hugely reduce conflict between tigers and humans as well as provide the necessary coexistence that Nepal's community needs. As one of the more prevalent points talked about in both Gurung, Bhim, et al. and Lamichhane, B.r.’s research, the key to the solution is to further understand the traits of problem tigers. As observed, the majority of the tigers labeled as conflict species are the physically impaired (63% of all physically impaired tigers inside CNP and adjoining areas).[4] This leads me to believe that if wildlife authorities have proper management techniques in keeping track of all physically impaired tigers it would help prevent said tigers from even entering areas that risk human interaction. Secondary measures should also be applied to the overall population of the non-physically impaired to help track those suspected of entering a dangerous area.
It is also very important to note that villagers who live within the dangerous buffer zones of tiger populated areas should be relocated with the proper compensation they deserve.[6] If achieved, support for tiger conservation will stay rampant, as well as greatly reducing conflict in those areas. With that being said, fundraisers and donation areas need to be spread throughout the wealthy areas of the world to support both the villager’s lives and the tigers.
I intentionally delve into the human-tiger conflict in order to fully understand the situations at hand. I have discovered that the rise in both human and tiger population, closely relates to the solution of saving the Bengal tiger species. Nepal’s front cover tends to lie within tourism, yet a majority of its permanent citizens are financially struggling. It is imperative that Nepal take action in each issue due to the current situation growing worse with every new decade. The survival of the Bengal species is important to both the biodiversity and environmental stability of the area. They balance herbivore populations from ruining substance agriculture in farming areas. They are also important as they require strict limitations to livestock grazing and fodder collection of farmers, thus proving the animals with a healthy ecosystem. If the Bengal tiger population continues to increase (rising to 240 tigers by 2020[5]) and the conflicts are not resolved, then we are looking at what could be the death of an entire ecosystem.
1. Bhandari, Shivish, et al. “Diet of Bengal Tigers (Panthera Tigris Tigris) in Chitwan National Park, Nepal.” European Journal of Ecology, vol. 3, no. 1, 2017, doi:10.1515/eje-2017-0008.
2. Gurung, Bhim, et al. “Factors Associated with Human-Killing Tigers in Chitwan National Park, Nepal.” Biological Conservation, vol. 141, no. 12, 2008, pp. 3069–3078., doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2008.09.013.
3. Karki, Jhamak B., et al. “Estimating the Abundance of Nepal's Largest Population of Tigers Panthera Tigris.” Oryx, vol. 49, no. 01, 2013, pp. 150–156., doi:10.1017/s0030605313000471.
4. Lamichhane, B.r., et al. “Are Conflict-Causing Tigers Different? Another Perspective for Understanding Human-Tiger Conflict in Chitwan National Park, Nepal.” Global Ecology and Conservation, vol. 11, 2017, pp. 177–187., doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2017.06.003.
5. “NTNC Chairman Released the Recent Tiger Number in Nepal.” NTNC Chairman Released the Recent Tiger Number in Nepal | NTNC, www.ntnc.org.np/news/ntnc-chairman-released-recent-tiger-number-nepal.
6. Reddy, Chidanand S., and Reuven Yosef. “Living on the Edge: Attitudes of Rural Communities toward Bengal Tigers (Panthera Tigris) in Central India.” Anthrozoös, vol. 29, no. 2, Mar. 2016, pp. 311–322., doi:10.1080/08927936.2016.1152763.
7. Talukder, Anup, et al. “Clinical Management of Maggot Wounds in Bengal Tigers (Panthera Tigris Tigris).” Journal of Advanced Veterinary and Animal Research, vol. 4, no. 1, 2017, p. 1., doi:10.5455/javar.2017.d187.
8. “How to Visit Chitwan National Park from Kathmandu, Nepal.” A Little Adrift, 3 Feb. 2017, alittleadrift.com/chitwan-national-park/.
9. Gierstorfer, Carl. “Where Have India's Females Gone?” CNN, Cable News Network, 3 Sept. 2014, www.cnn.com/2013/09/11/opinion/india-missing-females/index.html.